Media Coverage of 12 Major Conflicts

August 31, 1939:

Officials, guided by incomplete and delayed dispatches from Europe, considered the situation abroad very serious. Some feared war would happen in hours. Only private and secret opinions showed; the State Department and the White House kept official silence.

August 11, 1945:

In New York yesterday—and this was true for the nation—there was only discussion, speculation, sober thought, and whispered or spoken prayer that the second and worst blood-bath of our generation might end.

Context:

By the start of World War II, news did not stay in print. Radio broadcasts and newsreels also sent reports. Footage of events like the Blitz showed themselves in full detail to audiences worldwide.The BlitzPeople across the world watched the Blitz in full detail. The American public did not want to get involved in the conflict at first, even though they were generally sympathetic to the British.

After the US joined, considerable efforts pushed media and material aid. The Office of War Information took action.Office of War InformationThe Office of War Information formed in 1942 to manage print and broadcast media for the war. American filmmakers and artists gave their skills to public education and recruiting. Disney even made a cartoon praising strategic bombing.Strategic bombing.

The war's end usually shows wild celebration and an infamous kiss in Times Square.kisS appeared in Times Square. Reports from that time suggest more happened than people usually think, like the famous photo.

August 3, 1914:

General Nelson A. Miles on the start of the war in Europe:

One of the worst wars in world history is coming. European countries are crazy. One big war demands huge sacrifice and massive money loss to show them their mistake.

November 11, 1918:

Paris's moonlit streets held joyful crowds tonight. They waited for news of the armistice. Other good news arrived quickly with shouts. The crowds finished cheering for Prince Maximilian's request to leave the Chancellorship just as newspaper bulletins reported the Kaiser had abdicated.

Context:

General Miles'sGeneral Miles's dire prediction at the start of the Great War proved correct as top world powers got locked in a deadly standoff.

Newspapers remained the main source of information on the conflict, though people at the front lines thought they were unreliable. Since soldiers moved little, they made their own papers.Trench papersWorld War One felt darkly comic and poignant. It gave those serving a creative outlet.

The US felt neutral during World War One. However, the Wilson administration supported the Allied war effort. America's entry into the conflict in 1917 caused major crackdowns.major crackdownsThe government clamped down on civil liberties to prevent the war effort from failing.

April 13, 1861:

The ball opened. War began. Batteries at Sullivan's Island, Morris Island, and other spots opened on Fort Sumpter at 4 o'clock this morning.

April 10, 1865:

The big fight ended. Gen. ROBERT E. LEE and the Army of Northern Virginia surrendered yesterday to Lieut. Gen. U.S. GRANT and the Army of the Potomac.

The word PEACE. The fact of PEACE is now returning to the American people.

Context:

Technological advances like railways, telegraphs, and better printing made news travel fast and wide by the 1860s. The rush to report news quickly during the American Civil War matched the conflict's speed. During the battle at Antietam, correspondentGeorge SmalleyGeorge Smalley got close to the action; a bullet hit his horse. He borrowed another and finished his battle report on the train. His report went out the next morning.

The public'sinsatiable desire for newsLarger papers hired dozens of on-site reporters to get the latest news. TheNew York HeraldNew York Herald employed 40 correspondents. Journalistic standards lacked rigor. Some reporters stuck to facts, but others used sensational gossip and rumors. Editorials covered the war made no effort to appear fair. Republican papers generally supported the president in the north, while Democratic papers were much more critical.

Most generals disliked the press. William T. Sherman disliked reporters the most. He made many claims about the press's unreliability, but one statement is true: he called reporters little better than spies.little better than spies:

A spy furnishes an enemy with knowledge useful to him and dangerous to us. Giving intelligence to the enemy and sowing discord in an army means these men fulfill all spy conditions.

August 2, 1990:

The Bush Administration faced a hard truth today. Despite a long commitment to defend America's Persian Gulf interests, there was no simple military way to force Iraq to pull its troops from Kuwait.

March 1, 1991:

Guns stopped firing across Iraq and Kuwait today. Only small gun exchanges broke the ceasefire between the remnants of President Saddam Hussein's armies and the coalition forces that fought them in a 100-hour ground war.

Context:

In many ways, theGulf WarThe Gulf War opposed Vietnam. The US-led coalition fought a short, decisive campaign with a clear goal and tight media control. Few reporters got front-line access, only under strict watch. TV viewers saw constant coverage of advanced weapons firing from far away. The results of the weapons used in this one-sided fight largely stayed hidden from the public. Uncritical reporting drew much criticism.Critics voiced a great deal of criticism in the years that followed.This criticism occurred in the years that followed.

Ken Jarecke’s picture of an Iraqi soldier's charred remains stunned people.Iraqi soldier's charred remains.The Associated Press wire in New York pulled the photo. It was largely unseen in the US then. A London newspaper published it later. The photo's graphic nature caused a major controversy. Jarecke insisted the photo documented the realities of combat.The realities of combat.Gulf War coverage.

How can you start a war without knowing the final result? You must know what the end result and the middle result will be.

July 20, 1870.Franco-Prussian War.

Since yesterday morning, we have received few telegrams from the continent. This lack of intelligence likely signals a pause before a major event. Diplomats tried one last time on Monday to keep peace. Their efforts failed. A Paris telegram states success in that direction is now impossible.

January 19, 1871.Franco-Prussian War.

The public does not know if the King of Prussia accepted the Imperial crown of Germany. The Federal Parliament offered it in Versailles. Doubt remains small, though. He will accept, and this year will see a new ruler: the emperor of Germany.

Context.

As the Franco-Prussian War ended, the main result was finishing Germany's unification.Germany unified.Otto von Bismarck (pictured center, in white) used careful diplomacy. This maneuver kept the German Confederation fighting the French alone.

Prussia won military battles in the 19th century through short, decisive wars against isolated enemies. The swift end seemed possible when the French army fled and the emperor was captured in September 1870. Still, the provisional government fought on for five more months.

The rest of the world watched with curiosity, but also with fear.Some powers feared the conflict might drag them into the fight. This mirrors what happened in 1914.This stopped the conflict from pulling other powers into the fight. This is exactly what happened in 1914.

December 23, 1979:

Western and American mass media recently spread false rumors. They claimed the Soviet Union interfered in Afghanistan's internal affairs. They even alleged Soviet 'combat units' moved into Afghanistan. This is pure invention.

February 15, 1989:

Superpowers must carefully separate peripheral and vital interests before fighting in third-world conflicts. Even poor lands deserve more than being seen as mere pawns.

Context:

Foreign journalists could not access the Soviet war in Afghanistan; they called it the "hidden war." Hundreds of Vietnam journalists covered the crisis constantly, but only about a dozen reached Afghanistan. Western views of the conflict centered on stories of Mujahideen fighters fighting Soviet rulers.

The US armed Afghans with more than just stinger missiles; they also gave them camcorders. The US Information Agency received funds toequip and trainAfghan journalists in 1985.

The Soviet Union showed its denial of involvement early on, showing it was hesitant to cover Afghanistan. The few stories that appeared focused on the USSR's humanitarian mission in Afghanistan. By the mid-1980s, too many returning veterans challenged the non-combat story, so thefocus shiftedtoward stories of heroism by young conscripts. Mikhail Gorbachev called the war a "bleeding wound" in 1986. Soviet troop withdrawal started the next year and finished in February 1989.

June 25, 1950:

The United States will rush into Korea. According to a prearranged plan, large amounts of "assistance" arms will be sent. Military leaders believe these arms are enough to help the Republic of Korea push back the northern incursion unless the Russians provide military aid.

July 27, 1953:

Congress greeted the Korean truce with doubt today. It mostly agreed there needed to be an end to the dying, leaving the armistice and its results to President Eisenhower.

Context:

Reporting in theKorean WarCoverage in the Korean War differed sharply from World War II's cooperative reporting. US Army General Douglas MacArthur, commander of UN forces in Korea, was very upset. He imposed tighter restrictions on journalists to cover the war's harsh realities.tighter restrictions.

The military controlled radio waves from Korea to Japan, stopping unwanted reports. These rules stayed until the 1953 armistice. This created mistrust between journalists and officers, affecting how future wars would be covered.

March 20, 2003:

The ground war against Iraq began tonight. United States marines, supported by heavy air strikes and artillery, moved across the border in darkness.

Shells and bombs flashed the night sky along the northern horizon. This view came from the First Marine Division's headquarters base, eight miles south of the border, seen from tents and camouflage netting. Artillery barrages boomed and crumped across the desert, shaking the sand.

December 15, 2011:

After almost nine years, about 4,500 Americans died, and $1 trillion ends America’s war in Iraq. Officials marked the end Thursday with a small ceremony at the airport. This happened days before the last troops took the southern highway to Kuwait, leaving as they arrived, to finish the United States’ most ambitious and bloody military campaign since Vietnam.

Context:

In the hyper-patriotic world after 9/11, reporters faced a hard time asking questions their jobs required. Even veteran broadcasters felt scared by the atmosphere andrefrained from pushing backagainst official stories.

Before the 2003 invasion of Iraq, non-American journalists were shocked by the scale of theobsequious pro-war coverageMainstream media outlets showed this. Though protests existed against the incursion, the public supported military action and accepted the Bush administration's reasons.

During the conflict, the Iraqi minister of information,Mohammed Saeed al-Sahhaf, known in the West as "Bagdad Bob" or "Comical Ali," gained fame from his flashy and increasingly strange broadcasts.

As the conflict continued, public support and media coverage became more important. A Pew Research pollPew Research pollIn 2003, 72% of those polled said military action was the right decision. That number dropped to 38% by 2008. Recent years show public feeling toward the conflict falling..February 16, 1898

February 16, 1898:

At 9:45 PM, a terrible explosion struck the United States battleship Maine in Havana Harbor.

Many people died or got hurt. All Spanish Cruiser Alphonso XII boats are helping.

The cause of the explosion remains unknown. Wounded sailors from theMainecannot explain it. People think the battleship is completely destroyed.

August 13, 1898:

A great war ended in a peace even better. America, victorious everywhere, calmly weighs the terms it will give its defeated enemy. Under no limits except its own conscience, it plans how much generosity the humbled foe can accept alongside its duty to the oppressed peoples now near freedom and its own interests.

Context:

The sinking of an American ship, theMaineIn Havana Harbor in early 1898, tension grew between Spain and the US. Print media showed extreme exaggeration then, known as "yellow journalism." This term stems from the intense rivalry between New York newspaper owners Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst over the rights to the "Yellow Kid" cartoon. Over time, this term meant sensationalism in reporting.thatPulitzer) and William Randolph Hearst fought over rights to a popular cartoon.The Yellow KidThe term became synonymous with sensationalism in reporting.

After fueling anti-Spanish feeling about Cuba, the explosion of the Maine...MaineThe yellow journalists wanted to blame Spain for the explosion instead of accepting the official story of an accident.MaineCoverage focused on Spain. WhileHearst's quoteHistorians aren't convinced the media influenced the conflict; other long-term factors played a bigger role before it broke out.Historians lack full belief.Other long-term factors at play were more impactful on the conflict which eventually started.More impact on the conflict.Teddy Roosevelt gained national fame from favorable coverage of the Rough Riders by journalists.These journalists were friendly.They built his public image across his career.

August 3, 1964:

Defense Department officials saw the incident as unwelcome but not major. They saw the destroyer and four fighter planes make the best protest.

January 27, 1973:

The Vietnam cease-fire agreement was signed here today in silence, without words showing relief that the war was ending.

The accord took effect at 7 P.M. Eastern standard time.

Secretary of State William P. Rogers wrote his name 62 times on documents settling the longest, most divisive foreign war in America's history after 12 years.

Context:

Vietnam is called "the first television war" because daily reports with combat footage aired every evening. Initially, coverage showed positive news about American success. But as casualties rose and victory stayed out of reach, coverage shifted against the effort.

The1968 Tet OffensiveThis offensive marked the turning point; Viet Cong forces attacked all over South Vietnam. Though American and South Vietnamese forces pushed back, the shock of seeing an attack on the US embassy in Saigon damaged confidence in the war. Walter Cronkite famously called the war unwinnable on a February 27 broadcast. Legend says President Lyndon B. Johnson said, “if I’ve lost Cronkite, I’ve lost middle America.” This is a compelling story, but it is not true.is just not trueJohnson did not watch the broadcast; he gave remarks in Austin, Texas, at Governor John Connally's 51st birthday and made no comments about defeat.

Media research shows the press did not prove the war lost because public opinion shifted. The Tet Offensive did not actually change public opinion.The press did not change public opinion.The war's length and American casualties most eroded public support; neither did the war's most enduring images.

October 17, 1853:

The AtlanticIntelligence from Eastern Europe arrived yesterday at noon. A grand council of the Sultan's advisers met in Constantinople. They agreed to recommend and draft a declaration of war against Russia. The Sultan signed this declaration.

April 17, 1856:

The 1856 Treaty of Paris ended the conflict on March 30. TheLondon Times(quoted in The New York Times) expressed the British people's general dissatisfaction with the peace terms.

The British people will likely be unhappy with the peace about to be declared.

The paper tried to present a positive view of the outcome, despite admitting the lack of territory and money.

Our victories and full resources are our reward.

Context:

The Crimean WarBritain, France, and the Ottomans formed an alliance. They defeated the Russian Empire in a tough fight that began in 1853. This was the first major war covered as it happened.

William Howard Russell's on-site coverage showed the less glamorous side of war. It exposed poor medical conditions and a lack of organization in top command. Showing the unsanitary state of military hospitals spurred major nursing reforms led by Florence Nightingale.Florence Nightingale. Mary Seacole, a British-Jamaican nurse and businesswoman, was another pioneer.Mary Seacole.

The war failed to solve the "Eastern Question" or secure peace between Russia and the Ottomans long-term. These two powers fought again in 1877, and for the twelfth and final time in 1914.12th and final time in 1914.

October 8, 2001:

Flashes lit the skies over Kabul. Thunderous explosions shook the night, witnesses said. The Taliban fired antiaircraft guns into the dark sky. Residents in the capital and around Kandahar and Jalalabad saw their tracers. These areas are strongholds of the radical Islamic regime.

August 31, 2021:

The United States completed its withdrawal from Afghanistan Monday night. This followed a 20-year war that claimed 170,000 lives and cost over $2 trillion, and it did not defeat the Taliban.

As American forces left under darkness, the Taliban fired celebratory gunfire. The exit moment, earlier than expected, was both historic and anticlimactic.

Context:

Operation Enduring Freedom started in October 2001, weeks after the World Trade Center attacks. Coalition forces took over Afghanistan within two months, overthrowing the Taliban. However, the fight continued. By early 2004, troop numbers and public interest dropped to very low levels.

The war in Afghanistan.The war in Afghanistan.proved the longest yetThis conflict received the least media coverage.in modern American history. Media outlets and audiences struggled with the complex, low-intensity involvement. The mission to catch Osama bin Laden finished in Pakistan in 2011. The goal of controlling Afghanistan's wild areas was less clear. After bin Laden died, people asked to leave the area.

dropping of theMother of All Bombs.dropping of the Mother of All Bombs on a cave complex in 2017 briefly brought interest back. It achieved little long term. The Afghanistan PapersAfghanistan Papers.showed the real nature of the conflict. The public concealed the lack of progress for years.A tentative agreement.the Trump administration and President Joe Biden completed a withdrawal agreement.A long-term critic of the war., on August 31, 2021. In an August 14 statement, Biden stated his plan not to pass the war to his successor:

I was the fourth president to lead American troops in Afghanistan—two Republicans, two Democrats. I will not, and will not, pass this war to a fifth.

The withdrawal ended the latest hard part of the troubled region's story. Time will show what happens next for Afghanistan.